Introduction

There is a myth whereby acquiring a new language for younger chidren is easier. Nothing could be further from the truth, in instructed second language acquisition settings, at least, especially with one hour or less a week. In fact, encoding in long-term memory (LTM) is slower for younger children due to biological, cognitive, and experiential factors that influence memory formation and retrieval. Tran Thi Tuyet, in her 2020 article “The Myth of ‘The Earlier the Better’ in Foreign Language Learning or the Optimal Age to Learn a Foreign Language,” contends that the assumption “the earlier, the better” in foreign language learning is often misleading. She suggests that investing too early in children’s foreign language education may lead to suboptimal outcomes if not appropriately aligned with effective teaching methodologies and the child’s developmental readiness.

Additionally, a publication by the Centre for Educational Neuroscience titled “Avoiding the Hype Over Early Foreign Language Teaching” emphasizes the lack of substantial evidence supporting the notion that early foreign language instruction guarantees superior language proficiency later in life. The paper advises education professionals to critically assess the evidence before implementing early language programs, suggesting that premature introduction without proper pedagogical support might not yield the desired benefits

Research indicates that students who begin foreign language study in secondary school can often catch up to, or even surpass, peers who started in primary school. This suggests that the advantages of early language learning might not be as significant as commonly believed.

A study by Muñoz (2006) examined the long-term proficiency of early, middle, and late starters in foreign language learning. The findings revealed that older learners often progress more rapidly than younger learners, leading to comparable or even superior proficiency levels over time. This challenges the assumption that an earlier start guarantees greater language proficiency

Why do younger learners struggle more than older learners when it comes to L2-word learning?

Here’s a detailed breakdown:

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1. Brain Maturation & Neural Development

• Hippocampal Immaturity:
  • The hippocampus, which plays a central role in memory formation, is still developing in younger children (Gómez & Edgin, 2016).
  • Studies using fMRI have shown that hippocampal connections strengthen with age, leading to more efficient encoding and retrieval of information in older children (Ghetti & Bunge, 2012).
• Synaptic Pruning & Myelination:
  • Younger children have a higher number of neural connections, but they are not as efficient as in older learners.
  • Synaptic pruning (elimination of weaker neural connections) and myelination (fatty sheath around neurons improving transmission speed) increase memory efficiency with age (Paus et al., 2001).

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2. Working Memory Limitations

• Younger children have a lower working memory capacity, which affects how much information they can hold before transferring it to long-term storage (Gathercole & Alloway, 2008).
• Miller’s Law (1956) suggests an average working memory span of 7±2 items in adults, while younger children may only retain half that – with great variation amongst children in the same class.
• Reduced chunking ability: Older children and adults use chunking (grouping information into meaningful units), which improves memory retention, whereas younger children struggle with this strategy (Schneider et al., 2011).

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3. Underdeveloped Memory Strategies

• Lack of Rehearsal Techniques:
  • Older children use active rehearsal (repeating words mentally) to strengthen memory storage, while younger children often fail to engage in spontaneous rehearsal (Flavell, 1970).
• Limited Use of Mnemonics & Organization Strategies:
  • Older children categorize words by meaning (e.g., grouping “apple, banana, orange” as “fruits”), making retrieval easier.
  • Younger children lack this organizational ability, leading to weaker memory recall (Bjorklund & Jacobs, 1985).

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4. Episodic Memory & Schema Development

• Less Developed Episodic Memory:
  • Episodic memory (memories of specific events) is less developed in younger children, making it harder for them to link new words to prior experiences (Nelson, 1993).
• Lack of Established Schemas:
  • Older children have more structured knowledge frameworks (schemas), allowing them to fit new vocabulary into existing memory networks.
  • Younger children lack these schemas, making encoding slower and retrieval less efficient (Chi, 1978).

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5. Slower Consolidation of Memories

• Sleep & Memory Consolidation Differences:
  • Deep sleep (slow-wave sleep) aids in memory consolidation, but research suggests memory-related sleep processes are less efficient in young children (Wilhelm et al., 2012).
  • Older children and adults show better overnight retention of new information than younger children.

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6. Less Exposure & Repetition Opportunities

• Older children encounter more words in different contexts (reading, conversations, writing), reinforcing long-term retention.
• Younger children need more repetitions to store words permanently in LTM (Webb, 2007).

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Summary Table: Why retaining new vocabulary is slower in younger children

Factor	Younger Children (Ages 7-11)	Older Children (Ages 12+)
Brain Maturation	Hippocampus still developing	More mature hippocampal function
Neural Efficiency	Less myelination, weaker synaptic pruning	Faster neural transmission
Working Memory	Limited (4-6 items)	Stronger (7-9 items)
Rehearsal Strategies	Rarely use spontaneous rehearsal	Regularly use repetition
Mnemonics & Categorization	Struggle with categorization	Group and organize words for better recall
Episodic Memory	Less developed	Stronger recall of contextual experiences
Schema Development	Lack structured knowledge networks	Use existing schemas to reinforce learning
Sleep & Memory Consolidation	Weaker overnight memory retention	More efficient sleep-based memory strengthening
Exposure to Vocabulary	Limited real-world exposure	More frequent and varied word encounters

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Key Takeaways & pedagogical implications

• Younger children CAN encode words into long-term memory, but it takes more repetitions and contextual learning.
• Older children process and store words more efficiently due to better neural pathways, stronger working memory, and more effective learning strategies.
• Memory strategies like rehearsal, categorization, and spaced repetition can help younger learners retain words more effectively.
• Younger children are led by the principle of pleasure more than older children are, hence, their motivation to learn is more dependant on fun
• Multimodal learning is key with language learners based on what we know about their working memory limitations. The more ways a word gets encoded in their younger brain, the more neural associations are created, which leads to longer term retention
• Training in memorization techniques – as long as you make it fun – pays enormous dividends