0. Introduction

In the field of second language education, the question of what constitutes an outstanding language teacher has been widely investigated. In this article I synthesise findings from leading researchers, including Simon Borg, Diane Larsen-Freeman, Rod Ellis, Jim Scrivener, and several other renowned researchers in the field, to outline the key attributes that define excellence in language teaching.

1. Pedagogical Content Knowledge

According to research, outstanding language teachers demonstrate a nuanced understanding of the language they teach—including grammar, phonology, lexis, and discourse—and know how to break that knowledge down in ways that suit the needs of learners at different stages. Shulman’s (1987) foundational concept of “pedagogical content knowledge” underscores the importance of being able to transform content into forms that learners can grasp and internalise. In one of the best books I have read on L2 teacher cognition, Simon Borg (2006) applies this idea specifically to language educators, arguing that great teachers understand both what to teach and how to teach it so that learners can develop communicative competence. They use models, metaphors, real-life tasks, and context-sensitive strategies to promote deep learning.

Moreover, expert teachers are aware of how different language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing) interact and can integrate them effectively in lessons. In nearly three decades of language teaching, I have seen quite a few teachers struggle with this. Yet, designing effective input-to-output sequences is key.

Expert teachers also know when and how to use explicit instruction, inductive approaches, and guided discovery, drawing from evidence-based methods aligned with SLA principles.

2. Reflective Practice and Teacher Cognition

An outstanding language teacher is a reflective practitioner. According to Borg (2003), what teachers think, know, and believe—their cognition—plays a central role in how they teach. Great teachers routinely reflect on their practice: they think critically about what worked, what didn’t, and why. They use learner feedback, self-evaluation, classroom observations, and even journals to analyse their methods and decisions. Farrell (2015) emphasizes that reflective practice isn’t just a skill but a habit that contributes to sustained professional growth.

Reflection also means adapting one’s teaching in response to the evolving dynamics of the classroom. For example, if a communicative activity repeatedly fails to engage learners, a reflective teacher will explore alternatives rather than persist for the sake of consistency. This level of awareness and responsiveness is a hallmark of expert teaching.

The best educators I have worked with were highly reflective and constantly evaluated their practice in order to improve their teaching. One of the most able language teachers I have ever worked with and watched in action, never stopped doing this until the day before they retired!

3. Language Awareness

An outstanding language teacher is highly language-aware. Andrews (2007) notes that language awareness goes beyond knowing grammar rules; it includes being attuned to how language is used, how meaning is conveyed, and how learners process language. A language-aware teacher can recognise learner errors not merely as mistakes, but as insights into learners’ developing interlanguage. They can offer clear explanations and feedback tailored to individual learner needs.

Ellis (2001, 2006) supports the use of form-focused instruction (FFI), particularly when it is meaningfully integrated into communicative practice. Great teachers know when to draw attention to form and when to prioritise fluency. For instance, they may introduce a structure explicitly, then provide ample practice through communicative tasks and scaffolded production. They create environments where learners notice and recycle language in context, which research shows promotes retention and automatization.

4. Interpersonal Skills and rapport with the learners

Beyond content and pedagogy, what often distinguishes an outstanding teacher is their ability to build trust and rapport. Mercer and Kostoulas (2018) argue that language teachers play an emotional as well as instructional role. Effective teachers foster psychological safety, where learners feel supported and are willing to take risks. They greet students warmly, show interest in their lives, and provide affirming, constructive feedback.

Dörnyei and Murphey (2003) highlight how social dynamics in the classroom influence motivation and participation. A teacher who knows how to manage group cohesion, reduce learner anxiety, and foster collaboration sets the stage for meaningful interaction and deeper learning. The interpersonal domain is often where teachers leave the most lasting impression on students.

5. Learning Management and Instructional Clarity

An organised, well-managed classroom allows learning to flourish. Scrivener (2005) defines classroom management as the invisible framework that supports learning: clear instructions, smooth transitions, and logical sequencing of tasks. Harmer (2015) adds that clarity and consistency in teacher behaviour reduce learner uncertainty and increase engagement.

Outstanding teachers also make excellent use of time and space. They anticipate potential disruptions, manage pair/group dynamics, and create a rhythm that balances activity and reflection. Instructional clarity is another cornerstone—successful teachers check comprehension of instructions, model tasks, and monitor learning without overwhelming learners.

6. Adaptability, Creativity, and Professional Development

Teaching is not static, and neither are outstanding teachers. Larsen-Freeman (2000) describes language teaching as a complex, adaptive system. Great teachers welcome feedback, stay curious, and continually update their knowledge base. They reflect on their own growth and are open to trying new approaches—from integrating technology to reshaping lesson structures.

Borg (2009) and Farrell (2015) both emphasize the importance of lifelong professional learning. This may include action research, peer collaboration, conferences, or engaging with practitioner literature. Creative teachers bring freshness into the classroom—not just through fun activities, but through thoughtful adaptations that make learning more meaningful and personalised.

7. Teacher Self-Efficacy

A crucial yet often underemphasized trait of outstanding language teachers is their sense of self-efficacy—the belief in their own ability to plan, execute, and assess successful teaching strategies. Drawing from the work of Bandura (1997), teacher self-efficacy has been linked to persistence, resilience, and a greater willingness to try innovative practices, especially in challenging classroom environments. Teachers with high self-efficacy are more likely to set ambitious goals for their learners, maintain motivation when faced with setbacks, and adopt a solution-oriented mindset.

Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) argue that teacher self-efficacy influences not only the effort teachers invest in planning and delivering lessons, but also their openness to collaboration and reflective practice. In the language classroom, this means that confident teachers are more likely to create communicative tasks, experiment with new methodologies, and maintain a positive classroom climate. They also tend to encourage learner autonomy and foster resilience among students, modeling the kind of attitudes that support long-term language acquisition.

Moreover, self-efficacy plays a mediating role in how teachers respond to institutional demands, curriculum changes, or diverse learner needs. A teacher who believes in their capacity to adapt is more likely to succeed in implementing inclusive and differentiated practices, reinforcing the interconnected nature of the attributes discussed throughout this article.

8. Charisma

While often overlooked in academic literature, teacher charisma—understood as a teacher’s personal presence, energy, and ability to emotionally connect with students—has emerged as a powerful factor in motivating and engaging language learners. Charismatic teachers are not necessarily extroverted or theatrical, but they exhibit passion, clarity, humour, and authenticity that make their classes memorable and emotionally engaging.

Research in educational psychology supports the influence of teacher charisma. Patrick, Turner, Meyer, and Midgley (2003) found that students respond more positively to instructors who are perceived as enthusiastic and expressive. In the language classroom, charisma can facilitate emotional connection, reduce learner anxiety, and increase participation. Dörnyei (2001) also acknowledges the motivational power of the teacher’s personality, suggesting that learners often attribute their success to teachers who create a dynamic and emotionally charged learning environment.

Moreover, charismatic teachers tend to project confidence, use varied vocal delivery, and maintain purposeful eye contact and body language—elements that contribute to perceived credibility and trustworthiness (Zhang, 2009). These qualities help create the kind of interpersonal energy that sustains learner attention and builds a positive group dynamic.

While charisma cannot be taught in the conventional sense, it can be nurtured through self-awareness, practice, and the development of authentic communication styles. The most effective teachers find a way to channel their natural personalities into a presence that resonates with learners.

9. Pronunciation, Accent, and Phonological Awareness

A commonly debated topic in language teaching is whether having a native-like accent or ‘good’ pronunciation is necessary for outstanding teaching. Research in Instructed Second Language Acquisition (ISLA) suggests that while a perfect accent is not essential, strong phonological awareness and intelligible pronunciation are important traits for effective language models (Derwing & Munro, 2005). Learners benefit when teachers model clear, accurate speech, especially during early stages of language acquisition.

In fact, Munro and Derwing (1999) distinguish between accent and intelligibility, noting that even speakers with noticeable accents can be effective communicators as long as their speech is easily understood. This supports the idea that non-native teachers, who may not speak with native-like pronunciation, can still provide excellent input and serve as effective role models for learners.

Moreover, teachers with good pronunciation awareness can better help learners notice key phonological contrasts, develop listening skills, and gain confidence in their own speech. Teaching pronunciation explicitly—through stress, intonation, rhythm, and segmental features—is increasingly recognized as a vital part of communicative competence (Celce-Murcia et al., 2010).

Therefore, while an outstanding teacher does not need to sound like a native speaker, they should possess a solid understanding of pronunciation systems and be able to model intelligible, clear speech that supports learners’ development.

10. Cultural Competence and Inclusiveness

In today’s diverse classrooms, cultural sensitivity is essential. Effective teachers acknowledge learners’ cultural identities and foster an inclusive environment. They choose materials that reflect different perspectives, use culturally relevant examples, and respect linguistic diversity. Research in intercultural competence (Byram, 1997) supports the idea that understanding students’ backgrounds enhances engagement and reduces barriers to learning.

Teachers who value inclusivity also adapt their methods to accommodate neurodiverse learners and those with special educational needs. This includes differentiating instruction and being aware of how cultural and cognitive differences influence participation.

A Note on Gaps and Research Cautions

While the qualities outlined above are widely supported in the research literature, it’s worth noting that not all of them carry equal empirical weight. For instance, the concept of teacher charisma—though undeniably impactful from a learner perspective—remains underexplored in rigorous language education research. While studies in general education (e.g., Patrick et al., 2003; Zhang, 2009) suggest links between charismatic presence and student engagement, the evidence in second language acquisition contexts is less extensive and largely anecdotal. Similarly, the emphasis placed on pronunciation and accent, while supported by studies on intelligibility (Derwing & Munro, 2005), can sometimes overshadow the broader communicative competencies that learners need to develop.

This isn’t to say these traits aren’t valuable—on the contrary, they often distinguish memorable teachers. But it’s important to approach them with nuance and to be mindful that more robust, longitudinal studies are needed to fully understand their long-term impact on language acquisition outcomes. A balanced interpretation of research can help educators reflect not only on what to cultivate, but also on how to contextualise these traits within their own teaching realities.

What the Research Says About What Matters Most

While all of the attributes discussed contribute meaningfully to effective language teaching, several stand out as especially significant in the research literature. Pedagogical content knowledge, language awareness, and teacher cognition (including reflective practice) consistently emerge as strong predictors of teaching effectiveness (Borg, 2006; Ellis, 2006; Shulman, 1987). These elements influence how well teachers can deliver input, respond to learner needs, and make informed, adaptive choices in real time.

Interpersonal skills and classroom climate also play a crucial role. Studies by Mercer and Kostoulas (2018) and Dörnyei and Murphey (2003) highlight how learner motivation and engagement are often driven more by relational dynamics than by teaching methods alone. When learners feel safe, valued, and connected, their willingness to take risks—and therefore learn—significantly increases.

Teacher self-efficacy is another particularly influential attribute. High self-efficacy correlates with increased resilience, better classroom management, and a stronger orientation toward student success (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). These findings suggest that supporting teacher confidence and autonomy can have powerful ripple effects throughout the learning environment.

Conclusion

Outstanding language teachers bring together a powerful mix of knowledge, reflection, interpersonal sensitivity, and adaptive expertise. They are not defined by a single method or credential but by their commitment to student-centred, informed, and evolving practice. Through deep content knowledge, strong interpersonal skills, and a passion for professional development, these teachers transform classrooms into inclusive, engaging spaces where language learning thrives. By grounding our understanding of excellent teaching in empirical research, we can move beyond myths and surface impressions to build meaningful professional growth.

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References

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