Introduction

Instructed Second Language Acquisition (ISLA) is shaped by a range of learner characteristics, among which cognitive abilities—such as working memory, grammatical sensitivity, and processing efficiency—play a central role in developing language proficiency. Alongside these cognitive factors, affective variables such as motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy significantly influence learners’ success in acquiring a second language (L2). In this context, Wen and Skehan’s (2011) model of language aptitude offers a valuable framework for understanding the complex interplay between cognitive and affective factors in second language development. This article explores their model, focusing on its three key components, and suggests classroom strategies to mitigate common barriers faced by beginner learners. The article also integrates additional cognitive and affective challenges such as attentional control, inhibitory control, anxiety, and self-efficacy, offering practical classroom responses to each.

Wen and Skehan’s (2011) Model of Language Aptitude

Wen and Skehan’s (2011) model builds on earlier conceptualisations of language aptitude (e.g., Carroll, 1962; Skehan, 1998), incorporating findings from cognitive psychology and working memory research. Rather than viewing aptitude as a fixed trait, their model conceptualises it as comprising three interrelated components:

1. Phonological Working Memory (PWM)

PWM refers to the capacity to temporarily store and manipulate auditory information. It is essential for processing phonological forms, acquiring vocabulary, and maintaining syntactic sequences in short-term memory. PWM enables learners to recognise and recall sound patterns, thereby facilitating both comprehension and production.

2. Grammatical Sensitivity

Grammatical sensitivity is the ability to perceive and internalise morphosyntactic patterns in input. It supports learners in recognising, generalising, and applying grammatical rules—even when they are not taught explicitly. This sensitivity is fundamental for inductive grammar learning and for mapping form to function in the target language.

3. Processing Efficiency and Automatization

This component refers to the speed and ease with which a learner can process language in real time. As learners move from controlled to automatic processing, they can produce language more fluently and spontaneously. High processing efficiency enables rapid, accurate communication in both spoken and written modalities.

Each component contributes uniquely to language acquisition, and difficulties in any of these areas can hinder learners—particularly at the beginner level. In addition to these three core aptitude components, other cognitive and affective barriers also play a significant role in shaping learners’ classroom experiences and outcomes. This article therefore addresses the following key barriers:

• Phonological Working Memory limitations – difficulty retaining and manipulating sound-based information.
• Grammatical Sensitivity deficits – difficulty detecting and internalising grammatical patterns.
• Processing Efficiency limitations – difficulty processing language quickly and automatically.
• Attentional Control difficulties – inability to sustain focus on relevant input or task demands.
• Inhibitory Control weaknesses – difficulty suppressing L1 interference or incorrect linguistic forms.
• Anxiety – emotional responses such as fear of failure or embarrassment that interfere with performance.
• Low Self-Efficacy – a lack of belief in one’s own ability to succeed in language learning tasks.

The following sections examine each of these barriers in detail and offer practical, classroom-based strategies to support learners who may be affected by them.

1. Limitations in Phonological Working Memory

PWM is central to retaining and manipulating sound-based information long enough to process it. Learners with low PWM may struggle to remember new words, distinguish between similar sounds, or follow longer utterances, thereby affecting both comprehension and production.

Why PWM Matters in SLA

PWM underpins both receptive and productive skills. Comprehension requires learners to retain words and their meanings long enough to construct meaning, while production involves recalling vocabulary and grammar in real time. Limited PWM may result in slower language development, especially in early stages.

Classroom Activities to Support PWM

To support learners with limited PWM, teachers can use the following strategies:

• Sound discrimination activities – Faulty Echo, Minimal pairs, Write it as you hear it, etc.
• Flashcard Activities: Students review vocabulary or short phrases using flashcards, promoting recall and rehearsal of phonological forms.
• Phonemic Drills: Students practise difficult or unfamiliar sounds through repetition and articulation exercises.
• Chunking aloud games: Mind reader, Sentence Stealer, Lie detector, etc.
• Shadowing: Students repeat what they hear immediately, mimicking pronunciation and rhythm, often using audio recordings.
• Delayed repetition
• Choral Repetition: The teacher says a sentence aloud and the whole class repeats it together, reinforcing sound patterns and memory.

2. Grammatical Sensitivity Deficits

Learners with low grammatical sensitivity often struggle to detect or generalise grammatical rules, even after repeated exposure. This can result in difficulties with word order, verb conjugation, and tense/aspect distinctions.

Why Grammatical Sensitivity Matters

Grammatical sensitivity enables learners to decode structural regularities in input and construct grammatically accurate output. It is especially important for inductive learning, which is common in communicative and implicit instruction contexts.

Classroom Activities to Support Grammatical Sensitivity

• Sentence Builders: Learners arrange jumbled words or chunks into grammatically correct sentences.
• Error-Spotting Tasks: Students identify and correct errors in model sentences, developing grammatical awareness.
• Pattern-Contrast Activities: Learners compare two or more sentence patterns to notice grammatical contrasts (e.g., tense or word order).
• Parallel Texts: Bilingual texts are used side by side so learners can compare grammatical structure across languages.
• Structured Dialogues: Pre-written conversations highlighting specific grammar points that learners practise aloud in pairs.
• Transformational Exercises: Learners change sentence features, such as tense, voice, or speech type (e.g., direct → indirect speech).

3. Processing Efficiency Limitations

Learners with low processing efficiency often struggle with fast speech, slow production, and keeping pace with conversation. These difficulties can result in hesitation, fragmented sentences, and communication breakdowns.

Why Processing Efficiency Matters

Fluency in an L2 depends on the ability to process input and produce output quickly and automatically. With practice, learners can move from conscious rule application to intuitive language use.

Classroom Activities to Support Processing Efficiency

• 4-3-2 Technique: Learners speak about the same topic three times, in decreasing time frames (4, 3, then 2 minutes), increasing fluency.
• Market Place Activity: Learners interact with peers in a role-play “market,” quickly exchanging information to complete a task.
• Fast and Furious: Timed oral questions with rapid-fire answers to train quick thinking and reduce hesitation.
• Timed Dictation: Short passages are dictated within a time limit to improve listening, decoding, and writing speed.
• Sentence Relays: Students take turns quickly completing sentence stems in a group relay format.
• Speed Races: A competition to complete cloze tasks or grammatical transformations as fast as possible.

4. Attentional Control Deficits

Attentional control refers to a learner’s ability to focus on relevant linguistic input while ignoring distractions. Learners with weak attentional control—often those with ADHD or high distractibility—may struggle to maintain focus during input-rich tasks, leading to missed cues and incomplete intake.

Why Attentional Control Matters

Attention is a gateway to learning. Without focused attention, learners may not process grammatical or lexical input sufficiently for it to be retained or internalised.

Classroom Activities to Support Attentional Control

• Chunked Listening: Listening tasks are broken into short segments, each followed by comprehension or focus questions.
• Notice-the-Form Tasks: Learners highlight or underline target grammar forms during reading or listening tasks.
• Classroom Signals: Teachers use visual or auditory cues (e.g., bells, lights, hand signals) to re-direct attention.
• Time on Task Challenges: Short, timed tasks that challenge learners to stay focused (e.g., “spot 5 verbs in 90 seconds”).

5. Inhibitory Control Difficulties

Inhibitory control is the ability to suppress irrelevant or competing information—such as L1 interference or incorrect hypotheses. Learners with poor inhibitory control may perseverate with incorrect forms despite corrective feedback.

Why Inhibitory Control Matters

Inhibitory control allows learners to suppress overlearned or default responses in favour of new, target-like forms. It is essential for restructuring interlanguage and learning from feedback.

Classroom Activities to Support Inhibitory Control

• Contrastive Analysis Tasks: Learners explicitly compare L1 and L2 structures to notice differences and avoid negative transfer.
• Error Inhibition Routines: Learners practise pausing before speaking or writing to self-monitor for common errors.
• Delayed Repetition Tasks: Students hear a sentence and must repeat it after a short delay, which inhibits automatic (often incorrect) responses.
• Focused Correction Activities: Learners track personal error patterns using logs or correction slips, then practise suppressing these errors.

6. Anxiety

Language anxiety, whether trait-based or situation-specific, can significantly impair performance, especially in speaking and listening. Learners experiencing high anxiety may avoid participation, disengage from risk-taking, or freeze during interaction.

Why Anxiety Matters in SLA

Anxiety affects the affective filter (Krashen, 1982), reducing the efficiency of input processing and impeding working memory. It can disrupt speech planning and lead to underperformance despite high aptitude.

Classroom Activities to Lower Anxiety

• Think-Pair-Share: Learners think individually, then discuss in pairs before sharing with the class, reducing pressure.
• Error-Tolerant Environment: Teachers model how to respond positively to mistakes, encouraging risk-taking and learning from errors.
• Choice Boards: Students select how they demonstrate learning (e.g., orally, visually, in writing), increasing control and comfort.
• Role Play in Pairs: Learners practise dialogues in pairs before performing in larger groups, easing them into public speaking.

7. Low Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capacity to succeed in specific tasks. Learners with low self-efficacy often avoid challenges, give up quickly, and underestimate their capabilities, even when aptitude is sufficient.

Why Self-Efficacy Matters

High self-efficacy leads to greater persistence, willingness to take risks, and resilience after failure—critical attributes for mastering a language.

Classroom Activities to Build Self-Efficacy

• Success Journals: Students record and reflect on small wins and progress to boost confidence.
• Mastery Experience Design: Teachers scaffold tasks to start with easy wins and gradually increase complexity.
• Peer Modelling: Learners observe peers of similar ability succeed, which helps them believe they can do the same.
• Feedback Focused on Growth: Teachers provide feedback that highlights improvement and effort rather than just correctness.

Conclusion

Overcoming cognitive and affective barriers in second language acquisition requires a comprehensive approach targeting learners’ limitations in working memory, grammatical sensitivity, processing efficiency, attentional control, inhibitory control, anxiety regulation, and self-belief. Research-informed strategies—such as the 4-3-2 technique, market-place tasks, think-pair-share, and delayed repetition—can accelerate language development by enhancing both automaticity and emotional engagement. These techniques not only develop specific cognitive skills but also foster the motivation, confidence, and resilience learners need to persist. By addressing these barriers explicitly in the classroom, educators can create more inclusive, effective, and enjoyable language learning experiences for all students—especially those just beginning their language journey.

References

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