0. Introduction

L2 learners sometimes repeat sounds incorrectly due to a combination of cognitive, phonetic, and perceptual factors. Here are some key reasons why this happens, supported by research, which teachers who engage students in choral repetition need to be aware of in order to prevent the fossilization of errors. This is particularly important for teachers who practise the ‘Listen and repeat after me’ approach to the presentation of new lexical item with languages which may pose serious challenges in terms of pronunciation and do not regularly provide their students with a lot of rich aural input.

1. Why do some students repeat sounds incorrectly?

1. Phonological Filtering and L1 Interference

Learners subconsciously filter new sounds through their first language (L1) phonological system, leading to mispronunciations. If a sound does not exist in their L1, they may approximate it with the closest available phoneme.

Example: Spanish learners of English often pronounce /ɪ/ (as in “bit”) as /iː/ (as in “beat”) because Spanish lacks the distinction (Flege, 1995).

Research:
Flege (1995) in the Speech Learning Model (SLM) suggests that L2 learners struggle with phonemes not present in their L1 due to established perceptual categories interfering with new sounds.

2. Misperception of Phonemes (Perceptual Assimilation)

Learners may fail to distinguish sounds in the target language if they are too close to one another. The Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM) (Best, 1995) explains that if L2 sounds are similar to L1 sounds, they may be grouped together rather than learned as distinct.

Example: Japanese learners of English struggle to differentiate /r/ and /l/ because Japanese does not contrast these sounds phonemically.

Research:
Best (1995) found that learners substitute sounds due to perceptual limitations, meaning they may not even “hear” the sound correctly before attempting to reproduce it.

3. Incorrect Articulatory Setting

Different languages require different mouth, tongue, and lip positions. L2 learners often apply their L1 articulatory settings, leading to mispronunciations.

Example:
French speakers learning English often struggle with the /θ/ sound (“th” in “think”), replacing it with /s/ or /t/ because French lacks this articulation (Ladefoged & Maddieson, 1996).

4. Lack of Phonetic Awareness

Learners who are not trained in phonetics or explicitly taught the differences between sounds often rely on auditory approximation rather than accurate reproduction.

Example:
Mandarin speakers learning English may hear the difference between /v/ and /w/ but still fail to produce it correctly without focused phonetic training (Iverson & Evans, 2009).

5. Influence of Spelling on Pronunciation

Learners may mispronounce words due to their written form, especially in languages with non-phonetic spelling (e.g., English). Hence, the value of Scripted Listening techniques, whereby the target lexical items are modelled simultaneously through the written and aural medium (see my post on the topic).

Example: French learners of English may pronounce “island” as /ˈaɪlænd/ instead of /ˈaɪlənd/ because the silent “s” misleads them.

Research:
Bassetti & Atkinson (2015) found that spelling significantly influences L2 pronunciation errors, especially for learners from languages with more phonetic orthographies.

6. Memory and Cognitive Load

L2 learners store new phonological information in short-term memory and often recall it incorrectly when producing speech.

Example: A beginner English learner may misremember the pronunciation of “comfortable” and say /ˈkʌmfərteɪbl/ instead of /ˈkʌmftəbl/.

Research:
Baddeley (1992) suggested that working memory plays a role in phonological recall, meaning that learners under cognitive load (e.g., conversation pressure) make more pronunciation mistakes.

7. Fossilization of Errors

If incorrect pronunciation is not corrected early, it can become fossilized and persist even in advanced learners. Learners tend to repeat errors they have practiced incorrectly over time unless they receive timely and effective feedback. One of the main risks of choral repetition is that, if done too soon, without a robust phonological awareness receptive phase, with lexical items containing unfamiliar or challenging sounds, errors may go unheeded because the teachers may not spot individual students’ mistakes.

Research:
Selinker (1972) introduced the concept of fossilization, where certain L2 errors, including pronunciation, become ingrained despite continued learning.

2. Why do other students repeat sounds with greater accuracy?

1. Phonetic Perception Ability (PPA): Some learners have stronger phonetic discrimination skills, allowing them to accurately perceive and reproduce sounds (Iverson & Evans, 2009). Poor auditory processing can cause misperceptions that lead to incorrect pronunciation. Identifying early on in the language learning journey the students in your class with poor PPA is crucial, as this ability is key to effective vocabulary learning.

2. Working Memory Capacity. Higher phonological working memory (PWM) enables learners to hold and manipulate sounds in their mind before repeating them. Baddeley’s (1992) Working Memory Model suggests that learners with stronger phonological loops store and reproduce sounds more accurately. This has been corroborated by Service (1992), who found that learners with better phonological working memory had higher L2 pronunciation accuracy and vocabulary acquisition  So, Learners with higher phonemic recall ability can repeat a complex French word like “développement” after hearing it once, while those with weaker working memory need multiple exposures

3. Cognitive Load and Anxiety – Some learners struggle with pronunciation under cognitive overload or performance anxiety. Speaking anxiety inhibits pronunciation accuracy, leading learners to simplify or distort L2 sounds. MacIntyre & Gardner (1994) found that L2 anxiety negatively affects pronunciation accuracy. Tend to avoid situations where students may be put in potentially embarrassing situations when repeating a word or phrase. For example, I observed a lesson recently, in which a student had to repeat a word uttered by the teacher and the other students had to correct them if the repetition was incorrect pointing out the mistake(s). Potentially a great critical listening activity, but one with the potential to upset some more sensitive students.

4. Motivation and Attention to Pronunciation -Highly motivated learners tend to focus more on pronunciation and self-correct errors. Low motivation or inattentiveness can lead to careless repetition. Dörnyei (2005) found that motivated learners pay more attention to phonetic details and improve pronunciation faster. Staging fun activities fostering ‘alertness to sound’, e.g. EPI’s ‘Faulty Echo’, ‘Fixy echo’, ‘Error auction’, ‘Contrast response’, ‘Spot the difference’ using songs, can be great in this respect. Having a sound of the week or any other initiative or activity which makes a big issue out of sound, placing the importance of sound firmly in the learners’ focal awareness, will be useful.

3. Implications for Instructed Second Language Acquisition (ISLA)

The research on why L2 learners mispronounce sounds has significant implications for Instructed Second Language Acquisition (ISLA). In structured classroom settings, understanding the cognitive, phonetic, and perceptual factors affecting pronunciation errors can help educators design better instructional strategies. Below are the key implications for ISLA based on the identified reasons for mispronunciations:

1. Need for Explicit Phonetic Instruction: include explicit phonetic training, especially for sounds that do not exist in the learners’ L1 (Flege, 1995).

Practical Strategy: Introduce phoneme discrimination activities such as Faulty Echo, Minimal pairs, Contrast response and many others mentioned in Conti and Smith’s (2019) ‘Breaking the sound barrier’ book.

Supporting Research:

Iverson & Evans (2009) found that targeted phonetic instruction improves L2 phoneme discrimination.

Bradlow et al. (1997) showed that high-variability phonetic training significantly enhances learners’ ability to perceive new sounds.

2. Importance of Perceptual Training Before Production

Implication: Before requiring students to speak, ISLA should focus on perception training to avoid learners reinforcing incorrect pronunciations.

Practical Strategy:

Use auditory discrimination exercises before asking learners to produce the sounds.

High-variability phonetic training (HVPT): Expose learners to multiple speakers pronouncing the same sound to enhance perception.

Supporting Research:

Lively, Logan, & Pisoni (1993) found that exposure to multiple phonetic variants improved learners’ perception and pronunciation.

Nishi & Kewley-Port (2007) demonstrated that training perception before production leads to greater phonological accuracy.

3. Correcting Articulatory Settings for Improved Pronunciation

Implication: ISLA should include articulatory training, teaching learners how to position the tongue, lips, and vocal cords correctly..

Practical Strategy:

Use visual aids (e.g., ultrasound images, phonetic charts) to show learners tongue and lip placement. In Conti and Smith (2019) we recommend the use of charts showing a cross-section of the mouth in order to enhance learner physical awareness of how sounds are produced

Implement kinesthetic techniques such as touching the alveolar ridge when teaching /ɾ/ in Spanish.

Supporting Research:

Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) found that explicit instruction in articulatory settings helps learners produce difficult phonemes correctly.

Saito (2011) demonstrated that pronunciation instruction focusing on articulation improves learners’ accuracy in spontaneous speech.

4. Addressing Spelling-Pronunciation Confusion in ISLA

Implication: ISLA should explicitly teach the differences between written and spoken forms of words.

Practical Strategy:

Use silent letter recognition activities (e.g., teaching learners that “island” is pronounced /ˈaɪlənd/, not /ˈaɪlænd/). Write as you hear it and Rhyming pairs are also great activities for this.

Incorporate listening-focused spelling correction tasks to make learners aware of pronunciation irregularities.

Supporting Research:

Bassetti (2008) found that L2 learners over-rely on spelling when pronouncing words.

Erdener & Burnham (2005) showed that orthographic exposure affects learners’ pronunciation accuracy.

5. Managing Cognitive Load and Memory Constraints in Pronunciation

Implication: ISLA should introduce progressive learning sequences to reduce cognitive load.

Practical Strategy:

Use gradual exposure techniques, starting with simple syllable structures and moving to complex word formations.

Implement spaced repetition for pronunciation training.

Supporting Research:

Baddeley (1992) found that phonological working memory plays a critical role in language learning.

VanPatten (2004) suggests that limiting cognitive overload improves language processing

6. Preventing Fossilization of Pronunciation Errors

Implication: ISLA should provide frequent and immediate pronunciation feedback.

Practical Strategy:

Use repetition drills with corrective feedback to prevent errors from becoming entrenched.

Implement peer and self-monitoring techniques to promote awareness of mispronunciations.

Supporting Research:

Lyster & Saito (2010) found that recasting errors in pronunciation training prevents fossilization.

Saito & Lyster (2012) showed that learners who receive immediate feedback improve more quickly than those who don’t.

5. Conclusion

Mispronunciations in L2 learners are the result of L1 interference, misperception, articulatory habits, spelling influence, memory constraints, and lack of phonetic training. Targeted phonetic instruction, minimal pair training, explicit pronunciation correction, and perceptual training can help learners refine their pronunciation and avoid repeating incorrect sounds.