Introduction

I still remember marking a set of Year 10 writing tasks years ago and thinking, not without a certain irritation tinged with professional unease, “They understand this… so why can’t they write it?” They could recognise the language with little difficulty in aural tasks, manipulate it orally when supported, and even demonstrate decent control in tightly scaffolded activities; and yet, the moment they were asked to write independently, the output collapsed into short, brittle sentences, missing endings, hesitant word order, and a palpable sense of effort that went far beyond what the task seemed to warrant. Why? Why here? Why now?

What teachers often interpret as a lack of effort, resilience, or ambition in L2 writing is, in my experience, more accurately understood as a mismatch between task demands and cognitive capacity For a long time, I nevertheless explained the problem away as a practice deficit, reassuring myself that what pupils needed was simply more writing, more exposure, more rehearsal.

The moment when that explanation began to feel intellectually untenable came when I started my PhD in the early 2000s and immersed myself in the L2 writing literature, particularly research examining the cognitive differences between writing in one’s first language and writing in an additional one. What became increasingly obvious to me was that L2 writing is not merely slower or less accurate L1 writing, but a qualitatively different cognitive activity, one that places radically different demands on working memory, attentional control, and linguistic retrieval, such that pedagogical approaches borrowed wholesale from L1 contexts are almost guaranteed to misfire.

In my opinion, unless pedagogy is designed with this difference explicitly in mind, persistent weakness in writing should surprise no one… and yet, how often do we still default to “just write more”? And why do we expect a different outcome?

1. Two languages are active simultaneously and compete for selection (Kroll, Bobb & Wodniecka, 2006)

When learners write in an L2, their L1 does not simply step aside and…wait its turn. Lexical, syntactic, and even pragmatic representations from both languages remain active and compete for selection, which means that hesitation, reformulation, and interference are not symptoms of poor learning or insufficient effort, but the predictable consequence of bilingual activation unfolding in real time. The brain, quite simply, is doing two things at once, juggling competing representations while attempting to maintain coherence. Should we really be surprised? Please note: this happens with more L2 proficient writers like myself too!

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Allow planned use of L1 at the planning stage (ideas, notes), because content generation does not need to drain scarce L2 resources that will be required later for accurate encoding.
Implication 2: Teach contrastive chunks explicitly (L1 ≠ L2 structures), so that interference is anticipated and managed rather than discovered painfully through error.
Implication 3: Avoid banning L1 outright; manage interference instead, because in my experience such bans tend to increase cognitive friction and anxiety rather than promote fluency.

2. Grammar competes directly with idea generation (Skehan, 1998)

In L1 writing, grammatical encoding is largely automatised and therefore cognitively ‘cheap’, allowing writers to focus almost entirely on meaning, organisation, and nuance. In L2 writing, it is not. Formulation draws on the same limited working-memory resources as idea generation, so when grammatical decisions require conscious attention, something else must give way — and it is almost always content, complexity, or risk-taking. How could it be otherwise?

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Separate content planning from language encoding in time and task design, so that pupils are not asked to generate ideas and encode unfamiliar language simultaneously.
Implication 2: Use sentence builders so grammar is effectively pre-loaded, reducing the processing burden at the point of writing.
Implication 3: Delay extended writing until forms are automatised, not merely “covered”, because exposure without control does not lead to fluency.

3. Working memory overloads quickly in L2 writing (Sweller, 1998)

As already implied above, one point that teachers consistently underestimate is how early working memory overload occurs in L2 writing. Add new vocabulary, unfamiliar grammar, new content, and time pressure, and the system saturates fast; performance does not decline gently but collapses, often in ways that look like carelessness yet are entirely predictable cognitive consequences.

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Reduce task length deliberately (quality > quantity), recognising that fewer sentences written with control are more developmentally valuable than longer texts produced under strain.
Implication 2: Limit the amount of new language per writing task, so that attention can settle on consolidation rather than constant retrieval.
Implication 3: Scaffold heavily at first, then fade support gradually, because, as often reiterated on this blog, overload is not challenge; it is interference.

4. Pauses happen at morphology and function words (Spelman Miller, 2006)

Keystroke-logging studies show that L2 writers pause most frequently around verb endings, agreement, prepositions, and connectors — not around ideas or content generation. This finding, while awkward for certain assumptions about creativity and spontaneity, is deeply revealing of where cognitive effort is actually being spent. During the think-aloud protocols I staged with my informants during my PhD study, this was one of my most interesting findings. When asked about it, every single one of my students replied that they needed to think about them harder, especially when it came to verb endings they had learnt by memorizing verb tables (due to the TAP phenomenon) and prepositions (due to the differences in L1 vs L2 usage).

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Over-teach verb endings, agreements, and connectors as chunks, treating them as high-frequency building blocks rather than incidental details.
Implication 2: Practise micro-writing (one or two sentences) so that attention can focus on these pressure points without overwhelming the system.
Implication 3: Recycle the same structures across many tasks, relentlessly, because, as often reiterated on this blog, working-memory overload — not lack of ambition — is the real enemy.

5. Accuracy is prioritised over fluency under pressure (Ellis, 2009)

Under time pressure, even advanced L2 writers protect accuracy first and sacrifice fluency shortening sentences, simplifying syntax, and avoiding risk. This is not a motivational issue, nor a lack of resilience; it is a rational response to finite cognitive resources. And yet… how often do we assess both as if they were the same thing?

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Don’t time extended writing too early, especially before core structures are stable.
Implication 2: Use untimed drafting before timed exam practice, allowing control to consolidate before speed is imposed.
Implication 3: Assess fluency and accuracy separately, at least diagnostically, so that pupils are not penalised for unavoidable cognitive trade-offs.

6. L2 writers plan less and monitor locally (Hayes & Chenoweth, 2006)

This was the most obvious phenomenon I observed during my PhD into L2 writers’ self-monitoring habits: unlike L1 writers, L2 writers often move sentence by sentence, monitoring locally rather than structuring ideas globally, because attentional resources are already stretched thin by encoding demands. Planning does not magically transfer… why would it, given the load?

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Teach explicit planning frames (who / when / where / why) so that organisation is not left to chance.
Implication 2: Model planning aloud before writing, making invisible cognitive processes visible.
Implication 3: Use paragraph-level sentence starters until patterns are internalised, rather than withdrawing support prematurely.

7. L2 writing relies on effortful executive control (Bialystok, 1990)

Early L2 writing is governed not by creativity, but by executive control: inhibition, selection, monitoring, and constant checking. There is simply no spare capacity for “free expression” at this stage, however desirable it may seem pedagogically. This is not an argument against creativity, but an argument about timing.

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Avoid “creative free writing” with novices, not because creativity is unimportant, but because the system is already overloaded.
Implication 2: Build automatisation through repetition of familiar language, recognising repetition as a cognitive necessity rather than a pedagogical failure.
Implication 3: Treat writing as skill-building, not self-expression (yet), postponing creativity until control is secure.

8. Under time pressure, learners regress (Robinson, 2001)

When under pressure – especially during high stakes tests – learners retreat to safer grammar and simpler syntax, relying on what is most reliable rather than what is most ambitious. This regression is by design, not by weakness.

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Train exam conditions gradually, rather than imposing them suddenly.
Implication 2: Practise speed on familiar language only, ensuring that pace does not come at the expense of accuracy.
Implication 3: Teach safe grammar strategies for exams, so pupils know what to fall back on when pressure rises.

9. Translation causes heavy cognitive interference (Kern, 1994)

Translating from L1 to L2 activates both systems simultaneously and forces alignment, creating interference that often makes the task cognitively heavier than composing directly in the L2. Counter-intuitive, perhaps, but well attested.

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Avoid L1→L2 translation as a main writing task, particularly for extended output.
Implication 2: Prefer guided L2 composition, supported by models and chunks.
Implication 3: Use translation sparingly and diagnostically, to reveal interference patterns rather than generate text.

10. Chunks dramatically reduce cognitive load (Wray, 2002)

Here we go again some of you will say! Conti’s obsession: chunks ! However, chunks are not just a methodological preference of mine; they are a cognitive solution. Sequences such as in my opinion, I think that, because I like, when I was younger, in the future I would like to, on the one hand… on the other hand, or it is important to are processed as single units, freeing working memory and allowing attention to be redirected toward meaning. Why would we deny learners that advantage? As I am writing this article, right now, I can feel myself retrieving one chunks after another, sequencing and moving them around inserting connectives, adverbs and adjectives here and there.

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Teach whole sentences, not isolated words, as the primary unit of instruction.
Implication 2: Recycle chunks across listening, reading, and writing until retrieval is fast and automatic.
Implication 3: Make chunk recall the core success criterion, as often reiterated on this blog, because availability rather than originality is what ultimately drives fluency.

11. Editing is not writing, and treating it as such is a mistake (Hayes, 1996)

One final cognitive distinction that is too often blurred in classroom practice is the difference between writing and editing. In L1 contexts, editing is often treated as a natural extension of composition: writers draft, reread, revise, and refine with relatively little additional cognitive cost. In L2 writing, however, editing constitutes a separate, highly demanding task, one that places additional strain on working memory. Why? Because it requires learners to reread text they have already struggled to produce while simultaneously evaluating form, meaning, and accuracy.

For many learners, this creates a perfect storm! By the time they reach the editing stage, cognitive resources are already depleted, which means that “editing” frequently degenerates into either superficial tinkering or indiscriminate rewriting, rather than targeted improvement. Errors that teachers expect pupils to notice remain invisible, not because pupils are careless, but because the act of noticing itself requires cognitive capacity that is no longer available.

Pedagogical implications.
Implication 1: Editing must be taught and sequenced as a distinct phase, not bolted on at the end of writing tasks, with clear limits on what pupils are expected to attend to (e.g. verb endings only, or agreement only).
Implication 2: Editing should be selective rather than comprehensive, focusing on a small number of high-frequency features, so that attention is not diffused across too many competing demands.
Implication 3: Editing routines should be highly scaffolded and repetitive, using checklists, models, and shared correction, until learners develop the procedural knowledge required to edit with some degree of independence.

Crucially, editing should not be treated as evidence of autonomy or maturity, but as another skill that needs to be explicitly taught, practised, and automatised. Without this, we risk mistaking cognitive overload for indifference, and missed errors for lack of effort.

Table 1: A Cognitive Taxonomy of Editing in L2 Writing

Editing type	What it targets	Cognitive load	When it is viable	Classroom example	Main pedagogical risk if misused
1. Surface accuracy editing	Verb endings, agreement, articles, high-frequency prepositions, spelling of familiar forms	Low–moderate (narrow attentional focus)	After highly scaffolded writing; with short texts; when target forms are already practised	“Check only past tense verb endings.”	Overload if combined with higher-level editing; pupils change nothing or everything
2. Lexical precision editing	Word choice, replacing vague words, retrieval of taught chunks	Moderate	Once a core lexical repertoire is secure; with models available; limited alternatives	“Replace ‘I like’ with one practised alternative chunk.”	Slips into creative rewriting rather than editing
3. Morphosyntactic restructuring	Sentence structure, word order, subordination already taught	High (partial re-encoding)	After sentence-level automatisation; with sentence builders; one sentence at a time	“Rewrite sentence 3 using ‘because’.”	Accuracy collapses; gains made earlier are lost
4. Discourse & organisation editing	Paragraph order, logical sequencing, basic connectors	Very high (global monitoring)	With very short texts; higher proficiency; explicit planning frames	“Check each paragraph answers one bullet from the plan.”	Form accuracy deteriorates rapidly
5. Stylistic editing	Register, tone, variety, expressiveness	Extremely high	Very late in development; with highly familiar language only	Rarely appropriate below advanced level	Competes with all other processes; derails learning focus

12. Conclusion

Across these strands of research, a pattern emerges with uncomfortable consistency: pupils struggle with L2 writing not because they lack ideas or resilience, but because the task routinely exceeds their cognitive capacity. Why would they keep taking risks in such conditions?

An approach such as Extensive Processing Instruction, with its emphasis on rich input, structured processing, chunking, and delayed output, aligns naturally with what cognitive research tells us about how writing develops. In practical terms, this means a curriculum in which rich input, repeated processing, and controlled output precede extended writing, rather than the other way around. In my experience, writing improves not because pupils are pushed harder, but because the task is redesigned to fit how cognition actually works… and once you see that, it is very hard to unsee.

Table 2: A Cognitive Taxonomy of Editing in L2 WritingSummary table

What the brain does in L2 writing	Pedagogical implication 1	Pedagogical implication 2	Pedagogical implication 3
1. L1 and L2 are both active during L2 writing	Allow planned use of L1 at the planning stage (ideas, notes)	Teach contrastive chunks (L1 ≠ L2 structures) explicitly	Avoid banning L1: manage interference instead
2. Grammar competes with idea generation	Separate content planning from language encoding	Use sentence builders so grammar is pre-loaded	Delay extended writing until forms are automatised
3. Working memory overloads quickly in L2	Reduce task length (quality > quantity)	Limit new language per writing task	Scaffold heavily, then fade support gradually
4. Pauses happen at morphology and function words	Over-teach verb endings, agreements, connectors as chunks	Practise micro-writing (1–2 sentences)	Recycle the same structures across many tasks
5. Accuracy is prioritised over fluency under pressure	Don’t time extended writing too early	Use untimed drafting before timed exam practice	Assess fluency and accuracy separately
6. L2 writers plan less and monitor locally	Teach explicit planning frames (who / when / where / why)	Model planning aloud before writing	Use paragraph-level sentence starters
7. L2 writing relies on effortful executive control	Avoid “creative free writing” with novices	Build automatisation through repetition	Treat writing as skill-building, not self-expression
8. Under time pressure, learners regress	Train exam conditions gradually	Practise speed on familiar language only	Teach “safe grammar” strategies for exams
9. Translation causes heavy cognitive interference	Avoid L1→L2 translation as a main writing task	Prefer guided L2 composition	Use translation sparingly and diagnostically
10. Chunks dramatically reduce cognitive load	Teach whole sentences, not isolated words	Recycle chunks across listening, reading, writing	Make chunk recall the core success criterion

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